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The rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada in 1837 and 1838 remain
controversial to this day. Did they contribute to the winning of
responsible government, or did they slow down this process? Were
the rebels heroes or demagogues? This page will look at the historical
context of these events, and allow you to read some primary sources
to make up your own mind.
Lower Canada
Upper Canada
The Durham Report
Bibliography
Related Topics:
Responsible Government
Canada's Constitutional
History
Lower Canada Rebellions
Background
After the passing of the Constitutional
Act, 1791, Upper and Lower Canada were governed by an elected
House of Assembly
and a Legislative
Council that was appointed. These Legislative Councils, responsible
only to the governor, were controlled by a group of elites in both
provinces. In Lower Canada, its critics called this group the Château
Clique.
The wishes of the Legislative Council often came into conflict
with those of the Assembly. Three issues formed the focus of these
conflicts:
-
Control over revenues and expenses.
-
An executive that was not responsible to the elected Assembly.
-
Control of the provincial civil service.
The Legislative Council wielded greater power and often ignored
the Assembly's legislation. The Assembly retaliated by frequently
refusing to finance the Legislative Council's projects.
Rising Nationalism
In addition, there was resurgence nationalism after the War
of 1812. This took two forms. On one hand, Canadians of British
descent were rallying against the perceived threat from the United
States.
On the other hand, French Canadians were led by Louis-Joseph
Papineau and the Parti
canadien (renamed Parti patriote in 1826) to promote their culture,
rights and interests. This movement became increasingly radical
until there was a split in the early 1830s. Louis-Hippolyte
LaFontaine became the leader of the moderates while Papineau
remained at the head of the radicals. In 1834, the radicals made
their demands known in the Ninety-Two Resolutions.
Copyright/Source
Causes
By late 1837, a number of factors pushed Lower Canada into armed
insurrection:
-
The international economic downturn of the 1830s.
-
Crop failures in parts of Lower Canada in 1837, which left
many farmers near starvation.
-
An increase in immigration from the British Isles.
-
An outbreak of cholera,
brought by immigrants.
These factors contributed to ethnic and social divisions in the
province, and led to a series of clashes. The Assembly refused to
approve any money bills, which ground all public works to a halt
and the government to a standstill.
The Triggers
In March 1837, the Russell Resolutions rejected all the major demands
of the Patriotes.
The Patriotes began to boycott British goods and began organizing
rallies. Preparations began for armed insurrection. On November
16, 1837, the government attempted to arrest the leaders of the
Parti patriote. The leaders fled to the countryside and the rebellion
began.
The Fighting
Most of the fighting took place in three main battles: the Battle
of St-Denis (which was won by the rebels), the Battle of St-Charles
and the Battle of St-Eustache (both won by British forces). Because
the government had anticipated the insurrection and had moved troops
into the province, the rebellion was quickly crushed. Papineau and
other nationalist leaders fled to the United States.
Many of the rebels who fled found support there. In November 1838,
they returned to Lower Canada with hopes of sparking a mass uprising.
Once again, they were quickly suppressed.
Aftermath
The Roman Catholic clergy and moderates in the province had always
been opposed to violence. Combined with the vigorous response of
the British forces, militant nationalism was largely eliminated
in Lower Canada.
Despite this, however, the violence and destruction caused by British
forces and local volunteers in suppressing the rebellions would
later lead many to demand compensation for their losses.. This,
in turn, led to the Rebellion Losses Bill of 1849. This bill
was highly controversial because the Tories believed former rebels
would receive funds. The bill was passed, however, proving that
responsible government was finally a reality in the province of
Canada.
In addition, the Durham
Report, with its strongly racist overtones, has remained a source
of resentment ever since.
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To learn more about the rebellions of 1837
and 1838:
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Upper Canada Rebellion
Copyright/Source
Background
After the passing of the Constitution
Act, 1791, Upper and Lower Canada were governed by an elected
House of Assembly
and a Legislative
Council that was appointed. These Legislative Councils, responsible
only to the governor, were controlled by a group of elites in both
provinces. In Upper Canada, its critics called this group the Family
Compact.
The Legislative Council wielded greater power and often ignored
the Assembly's legislation. The Assembly retaliated by frequently
refusing to finance the Legislative Council's projects.
The Reform Movement
Born out of social and economic tensions after the War
of 1812, the Reform
Party began to challenge the dominance of the Anglican Church
and the Family Compact. As in Lower Canada, the movement had factions.
Moderate reformers were led by Robert
Baldwin and sought responsible government; radical reformers
wanted to build a society and economy based on the United States.
William Lyon
Mackenzie led the most extreme faction.
Causes
Several issues formed the focus of resentment in the colony:
-
The Council's control over revenues and expenses.
-
An executive not responsible to the elected Assembly.
-
The council's control of the provincial civil service.
-
The council's control of the clergy
reserves in the province.
-
The Council's land-granting policies
In addition, there were other factors:
The Triggers
Lieutenant-Governor Sir
Francis Bond Head, in an effort to get the Assembly to support
his government, directly intervened in the elections of 1836. He
succeeded in winning a conservative majority.
This interference convinced Mackenzie that armed insurrection was
the only remaining solution. The opportunity came when Head moved
all of the British forces out of the province to suppress the Lower
Canada rebellion.
The Fighting
Between December 5 and 8, a group of about 1,000 rebels gathered
at Montgomery's Tavern in York (Toronto). This Loyalist militia
quickly won initial small skirmishes in the city. Many rebels sought
refuge in the United States, and some continued to attack from there
in 1838. This too was defeated by British forces. Mackenzie escaped
to the United States, where he remained in exile until 1849.
Aftermath
The Family Compact's power was greatly increased by the Upper Canada
rebellion and the fear it generated. This effect was temporary as
moderates soon rose to prominence. The Durham
Report was greeted with enthusiasm by reformers, although its
recommendations for responsible government were not put into effect
until 1848.
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To learn more about the rebellions of 1837
and 1838:
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The Durham Report
The rebellions precipitated a royal commission, which was convened
to investigate the factional strife in the Canadas. Headed by Lord
Durham, this commission resulted in the Report on the affairs
of British North America (often called the Durham Report).
The report made a number of controversial recommendations:
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A union of Upper and Lower Canada.
-
Responsible
government, dominated by the English inhabitants of the
Canadas.
-
Colonial control of internal affairs (but in a very limited
sense).
-
Assimilation of the French-speaking population.
The recommendation for a union of the Canadas was adopted in the
Act
of Union, 1840, which laid the foundation for the next wave
of change resulting in Confederation in 1867.
Bibliography
Buckner, P.A. Rebellions of 1837. The Canadian Encyclopedia.
Historica Foundation of Canada, 2000. (Online: <http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?TCE_Version=A>,
accessed November 8, 2002).
Creighton, Donald. The empire of the St. Lawrence. Toronto:
The MacMillan Company of Canada Limited, 1956.
Francis, R. Douglas, Richard Jones and Donald B. Smith. Origins:
Canadian history to confederation. Toronto: Harcourt Brace
& Company Canada Inc, 1992.
Ouellet, Fernand. The Insurrections. Readings in Canadian History:
Pre-Confederation. Eds. R. Douglas Francis and Donald B. Smith.
Toronto: Harcourt Brace & Company, 1994, 330-344.
Senior, Elinor Kyte. Redcoats and Patriotes: The Rebellions
in Lower Canada 1837-38. Ottawa: Canada's Wings, 1985.
Wade, Mason. The French Canadians 1760-1967. 1, 1760-1911.
Toronto: MacMillan of Canada, 1968.
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